Operation Overlord
Chapter 32
“You are about to embark on the great crusade, toward which we striven these many months”
By the Summer of 1944 Metropolitan France had been under German occupation for four long years. After the stunning collapse of the Third Republic in 1940 the country had been nominally under the control of a collaborationist government based in the southern spa town of Vichy, but what little authority it actually commanded had been eroded since then to the point of near total irrelevancy. With the Western Front closed, the Reich had been able to concentrate on its increasingly costly eastern ventures, as well as those in Italy, with France becoming something of a backwater. The reopening of this front was, accordingly, the single most important objective of the Western Allies.
Rommel inspects beach obstacles
German Federal Archives
Hitler and his generals at OKW were keenly aware of this, and directed considerable resources into the fortification of the coastline in France and elsewhere, creating the much vaunted “Atlantic Wall” to blunt any Allied landing. The disaster of the Canadian-led raid at Dieppe in 1942 had demonstrated the ability of the Germans to withstand amphibious assaults, and the bulwark had only been strengthened in the intervening years.
A German casemate in Normandy
German Federal Archives
The Wall consisted of over 1,500 miles of bunkers, trenches, casemates and obstacles, running from the Spanish Border at the Bay of Biscay to the Arctic coast of Norway. Artillery was sourced from a wide variety of places, from the usual factories to disabled warships and obsolete and captured stores. Certain strategic locations were turned into fortresses, including the ports of Cherbourg and Brest, along with the anticipated site of the main Allied landings at Calais.
Field Marshal Rommel inspects positions on the Atlantic Wall
German Federal Archives
Command of these fortifications had been assigned to one of Germany’s most famous officers; Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, the “Desert Fox” who had won his fame in the sands of North Africa. Upon taking command of the fortifications, Rommel had immediately moved to strengthen them, convinced as he was that the only hope of containing the Allies when they landed was to immediately push them back into the sea.
German soldiers in a trench during an air raid drill in Normandy
German Federal Archives
Meanwhile, an Allied army of enormous size was building in Britain, with over one and a half million Americans joining with British, Canadian, French, Polish and others. Some tension had existed within the melting pots of international troops, but in general relations were cordial, with a veritable rainbow of uniforms on the streets of cities such as London. But as the summer of 1944 dawned lockdowns were imposed, with the vast armies left to train and wait for the coming D-Day. Vast preparations had been ongoing throughout southern England for years, with rehearsal landings, navigation training, and specialized amphibious assault trainings for the variety of environments anticipated on the opposite side of the Channel.
Eisenhower and his staff at SHAEF
The senior Allied leadership had been organized as the Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force, and was based in London under the command of American General Dwight D. Eisenhower; who had earlier distinguished himself as commander of the successful invasions of North Africa and Sicily. An excellent administrator and a savy diplomat, he had been chosen in part due to his ability to balance the strong personalities that would make up the planned command for the invasion proper. “Ike” had been under a great deal of strain as May gave way to June of 1944, as the weather over the Channel forced him to vacillate on the proper time to launch the landing.
Eisenhower speaks with men of the US 101st Airborne Division on the eve of the invasion
The chosen site of the landings was to be the coast of Normandy, selected over other possible sites due to a combination of the fact that it offered a chance to rapidly create a large foothold in Northern France, but also due to it being considered a less likely target by the Germans as opposed to the Pas de Calais. To ensure that surprise was maintained, the Allies went to great lengths to deceive the Germans as to the actual landing site, going so far as to assemble a fake Army Group in Dover, directly across the Channel from Calais. This included dummy tanks and landing craft massing in the area and radio operators sending flurries of coded orders to nonexistent formations. As the proverbial cherry on top, this false army was under the command of the famous General George S. Patton.
USAAF bombers fly over a burning Pointe du Hoc in Normandy
US Army Air Force
Preparatory bombings of the Atlantic Wall had been underway as well, with a number of disparate locations along the coast struck in hopes of keeping the Germans unaware until the beachhead was already secured. Large scale bombing of the planned landing beaches began at midnight on 6 June, as minewseepers began quietly clearing the German minefields on the approaches. The the weather having broken only for a brief window, SHAEF gave the word: D-Day was set for June 6, 1944.
The Airborne Landings
British paratroopers are briefed on their objectives for the Normandy Operation
The first move of the invasion would come from the air, as a large force of glidermen and paratroopers were dropped in the pre-dawn hours to secure vital objectives to disorient the German defenders and prevent rapid reinforcement of the beaches. This was itself opened just after midnight as British paratroopers landed in Horsa gliders to seize the bridges over the Caen Canal and the Orne River. These unpowered aircraft, constructed from plywood, had been towed across the Channel behind Stirling bombers, crammed with 28 fully loaded paratroopers.
British paratroopers sync their watches before takeoff for Normandy
Released to glide to earth on a one way trip from 7,000 feet, the aircraft came in to crash land amongst the barbed wire of the German perimeter around the bridges. Despite the violence of the landings themselves the defenders were not immidately alerted until sentries were shot by the emerging paras, and after a brief but intense firefight the Caen Canal bridge was secured in just six minutes, gaining the name “Pegasus Bridge”.
British military vehicles cross “Pegasus Bridge” over the Caen Canal after its capture by British paratroopers
Additional glider landings would secure the bridge over the Orne, and reinforce these positions, as well as parachutists, but it would be almost an hour before the Germans went to a corps level alert and began to mobilize their local forces. An attempt to dispatch reinforcements from Caen led to an ambush by British paratroopers, with a German armored vehicle destroyed.
A Horsa Glider straddling a hedgerow in Normandy
Elsewhere, at half past four in the morning Lt. Colonel Terrance Ottway had assembled only a small fraction of his required forces to neutralize the German battery at Merville, and was forced to launch his assault with what was available when his reinforcement gliders overshot and crashed into the German positions, leaving the paratroopers inside in a firefight. The resulting attack was costly, with 70 British soldiers falling in the fifteen minute battle before Ottway fired a yellow flare into the sky, signalling to the Royal Navy ships off shore that the guns of Merville were in British hands.
German officers inspect a fortified coastal gun (the casemates at Merville were of a different construction but similar in purpose)
German Federal Archives
Farther west, the American airborne landings began with pathfinders of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, scouts who were to set up beacons to guide the rest of the force to their drop zones. The subsequent drop was scattered due to the darkness and German anti-aircraft fire, leading the paratroopers to form small ad hoc units to accomplish local objectives. At 0400 Hours the Stars and Stripes were raised over the village of Sainte Mere-Eglise, marking the first French village liberated in the campaign.
US paratroopers aboard a C47 en route to the drop on Normandy
Additional drops would occur later in the morning, as would landings by glider units with artillery and heavy equipment, despite the disorganized drop and stiff resistance from elite German Fallschirmjager units. During the subsequent landings the danger inherent in glider operations was starkly illustrated by the death of Brigadier General Don Pratt, assistant commander of the 101st Airborne Division, who was killed when his glider crashed. In spite of the chaotic landings, German response was likewise confused, and as a result the primary objectives of the American airborne of sewing chaos behind the beaches and preventing the effective deployment of German reinforcements was accomplished.
German soldiers inspect an American Waco glider
German Federal Archives
The Beach Landings
Out on the seas of the English Channel, an armada was steaming for the Norman coastline, numbering almost 7,000 ships of all types. Crammed aboard was the vast army that had been building in Britain, pitching their way to commence Eisenhower’s “Great Crusade”. This began at ten minutes pat 0500, as the cruiser HMS Orion opened fire on German strongpoints on the coastline, soon followed by the rest of the warships in the armada.
The battleship USS Arkansas bombards Omaha Beach
Landings were to take place along five main beaches, divided between the major Allies. In the west the Americans would land on Omaha and Utah Beaches, with their main objective being to push inland and isolate the Germans on the Cotentin Peninsula, thereby clearing the road to secure a proper port at Cherbourg. In the east, the British would land on Gold and Sword Beaches, with the Canadians in between these at Juno. Their main objective was to secure the city of Caen, and to block German reinforcements from Calais to the northeast.
Omaha Beach
A Higgins Boat sets out for Omaha
As the GIs of the 1st and 29th Infantry Division boarded their landing craft for the final run to the beach a massive bombardment slammed into the German positions at Omaha from USAAF bombers and US Navy battleships. Preceding their landing on Omaha Beach was a massive barrage of rockets fired from just off shore, but most of these fell well short. To make matters worse, this sector was defended by the German 352nd Infantry Division, a full strength front line formation, as opposed to the mostly second rate units stationed along the Normandy coastline.
“Into the Jaws of Death”; one of the most iconic photos of the Second World War, showing soldiers going ashore at Omaha Beach
Aboard the pitching Higgins boats approaching the beach, the Americans came under heavy fire from intact defenses, as the swells of the Channel pushed the craft away from planned landing zones. Amphibious tanks, intended as a secret weapon to support the assault, were swamped and sank to the bottom, their crews trapped within. As landing craft bottomed out on sandbars the men inside were forced to wade ashore, with some heavily laden assault troops being swallowed by the sea as the ground disappeared beneath them.
A landing craft after taking a hit on approach to Omaha Beach
All this occurred as the Germans poured murderous fire upon them from machine guns and pre-registered mortars and artillery. Assault Engineers, specially trained to clear obstacles to allow the infantry to move off the beaches, took notably heavy casualties as they attempted to bring in their loads of explosives and deploy them. Resistance was so heavy at Omaha that the second wave arrived to the same reception as the first, save for the bodies and equipment littering the beaches.
Landing craft hit the beaches at Omaha
Even as some American troops reached the relative safety of the shingle (a ridge of sand along the high-tide line), by the early afternoon most remained pinned down by murderous fire, as the wounded drowned in the incoming tide. In other areas, however, breakthroughs had occurred. 29th Infantry Division Assistant Commander Brigadier Norman Cota had managed to rally his inexperienced men, and they had managed to get behind the German line of resistance. Aided by naval gunfire, they were able to press up the narrow draws through the cliffs that lined the beach, and by the end of the day footholds were being carved into the land behind the German lines in several places, although in others the defenders held along the beaches themselves.
American casualties on Omaha Beach
Pointe du Hoc
Adjacent to Omaha Beach, the promontory of Pointe du Hoc was home to a major German coastal battery, which had been identified as a significant threat to the landings on both American beaches. As a result, a special unit of US Army Rangers was tasked to scale the sheer cliffs of the promontory and secure the battery, destroying the 155mm guns stationed there to deprive their use to the Germans. To accomplish this the Rangers’ landing craft were fitted with rocket grapnels, to fire lines to the top of the cliffs, and modified DUKW amphibious trucks were equipped with ladders requisitioned from the London Fire Department.
Rangers climb the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc
Scaling the cliffs as US battleships pummeled the German defenders atop them, the Rangers secured the battery to find the guns had been removed prior to their assault, although they were found nearby and spiked with thermite as intended. Subsequently the battery would be held by the Rangers despite heavy German counterattacks, and the Americans were not relieved by troops advancing from Omaha Beach until 8 June.
Rangers at Pointe du Hoc after the position was captured
Sword Beach
On the far eastern edge of the invasion area, the British 3rd Division encountered stiff resistance as well, although not as strong as on Omaha. The amphibious tanks were more successful here, and were a boon to the assault troops, and two hours after the first men came ashore the British were beginning to advance off the beach.
Scottish troops go ashore at Sword Beach, with their piper preparing to disembark
Advancing off the beach, the British pushed their forces out to link with the paratroopers that had secured the bridges over the Orne and the Caen Canal the night before, while other units pressed westward to link up with the Canadians landing at Sword Beach. Heavy fighting developed within the seaside village of Ouistreham, but the town was secured by the early afternoon.
British infantry and armor clear the Germans out of Ouistreham near Sword Beach
The Germans deployed their rapid reaction armored force to counterattack at Sword, with the 21st Panzer Division driving to recapture the bridges held by the British paratroopers. When this failed, the attack was redirected to split the British from the Canadians, and managed to reach the coast in the evening after heavy fighting. Despite this, heavy losses were incurred from Allied aircraft, and the Germans were forced to retire overnight to prevent their forces from being enveloped against the coast.
British troops move inland from Sword Beach
Utah Beach
On the far western edge of the invasion area, the American 4th Infantry Division encountered much less resistance than their comrades on Omaha. The preliminary bombardments had been much more effective hear, and when the Assistant Commander of the division, Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. (son of the former President) found the landings were off target, he noted that the location was better than that which had been planned.
American troops come ashore at Utah Beach
Additional landings brought in armored forces, while the engineers here had a significantly higher success rate, clearing obstacles and allowing the Americans to push inland relatively quickly. The first objective was to link up with the scattered US Airborne forces behind the beach, advancing up the causeways leading inland. Several villages along the route had already been captutred by paratroopers from the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, allowing for a relatively smooth advance. The village of Sainte-Mere-Eglise, however, remained isolated, with the paratroopers there fighting with their German counterparts.
A German shell lands on Utah Beach amid GIs coming up from the shoreline
Gold Beach
The second landing zone assigned to the British was situated at the center of the overarching Normandy landing zones. The objective here, aside from linking with the Americans at Utah and the Canadians at Juno, was to sever the N13 Highway to prevent its use by Germany reinforcements.
British soldiers come ashore at Gold Beach
Upon landing, the British came under heavy fire from German bunkers, but were able to overcome them due to tanks being landed at the same time (moved up due to the poor sea conditions). The next objective was to clear the village of La Riviere, which was accomplished by the end of the morning.
British tanks come ashore at Gold Beach as a bulldozer clears the landing area
Additional units pushed off the beach and captured the remaining German casemates and bunkers, while other units landed farther down along the beach. Heavy fighting occured around Le Hamel, with close quarters fighting taking place in the local sanatorium and the surrounding structures, which were not secured until mid afternoon. Despite these setbacks, Arromanches was in British hands by the late afternoon, and the highway had been severed.
British soldiers inland from Gold Beach
Although this represented a significant success, the British were unable to secure Bayeux on D-Day, being forced to concede and attacked again on 7 June, this time securing the town. The last pockets of resistance in the beach area were cleared by the morning of the 7th of June.
Juno Beach
Canadian troops in landing craft as they approach Juno Beach
The Canadian landing zone was situated just east of Gold Beach, and targeted the villages of St. Aubin and Courselles. As the Canadians came ashore they found themselves under heavy fire from German positions, taking heavy casualties until their tanks landed and aided in clearing the strongpoints along the beach. Several with anti-tank guns caused notable casualties, but by and large the beach itself was secure by early afternoon.
Canadian soldiers come ashore at St. Aubin, Juno Beach
Following this, the Canadians began to advance inland off the beach, encountering scattered resistance from the disorganized German units that remained to face them. Resistance stiffened as they advanced farther inland, and by the third phase line of the advance the Canadians had been halted.
A Canadian aid station on Juno Beach, with a German bunker in the background
One of the main objectives of the assault was the seizure of the Carpriquet Airfield near Caen, and although Canadian armored units managed to reach the perimeter of the Luftwaffe base by evening no support could be brought up, forcing them to withdraw. The base would subequently be reinforced, and would not be taken for another month.
Canadian troops advance on a German strongpoint off Juno Beach
The German Response
The response of the German defenders to the landings at Normandy was by and large confused and disorganized. The Allied deception campaign had been so successful that even once men were hitting the beaches the Germans remained confused as to whether the attack was a feint. The fact that Rommel had taken leave to return home had further complicated the situation and caused more confusion at the higher levels of German command.
Crews of the 12th SS Panzer Division, composed of Hitler Youth volunteers, stand for inspection in France
German Federal Archives
Even after it became apparent that Normandy was the target of the main landing, difficulties remained within the OKW. Operational control of the bulk of the panzer forces earmarked to respond to the invasion was locked down to Hitler’s express permission, and the Fuhrer was slow in authorizing their use. This delay meant that when the bulk of the feared panzers mobilized, they were caught in the open by Allied aircraft, and were mauled before they reached the battle area.
Canadian soldiers inspect a model of Juno Beach after capturing a German headquarters
German counterattacks, and the stiff defense at Omaha, prevented the Allies from accomplishing their immediate objectives for D-Day, but they also failed to push the invaders back into the sea. The Western Front had been reopened, and this was to spell utter disaster for a Wehrmacht already stretched to its limit in Italy and across the expanse of the Eastern Front.
Omaha Beach after it was secured, transformed into a massive makeshift harbor
The Commanders
The original Allied situation map for June 6th, 1944