Summer, 1940

Chapter 5

Britain Stands Alone

July - September

RAF ground crews rearm a Hawker Hurricane fighter

With the Fall of France, Britain stood alone against the combined might of Italy and a Germany that now dominated the European continent. The situation only continued to deteriorate as the Germans turned their sights on Blighty herself. As July began, Philippe Petain formally assumed control of a new, collaborationist French government, based at the spa town of Vichy. The resulting reorganization of power in France presented extreme danger to the British, particularly in regard to the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal, the lifeline of the British Empire.

Petain and his ministers in Vichy

In that region the French Fleet consisted of several battleships as well as numerous smaller warships based at Mers el Kebir, near Oran in French Tunisia. This powerful force was a direct threat to the Royal Navy in the region should it be captured by the Germans or operated by a possibly belligerent Vichy State, and despite the assurances of the French that the fleet would not be used against their former allies, the British believed it was necessary to remove the threat.

British shells land amidst the French fleet at Mers el Kebir

An ultimatum was delivered to the French commanders at Mers el Kebir, ordering them to surrender their vessels to the British or sail under escort to the French West Indies, far out of German reach. This was rebuffed by the French, who were insulted that their word was not taken by the Royal Navy. As a result, the Royal Navy’s Force H deployed from Gibraltar, and attacked the French fleet on the afternoon of July 3, 1940.

The resulting attack succeded in sinking or disabling the bulk of the French fleet, but severely strained relations with France, and would for decades to come. This extended even to General Charles de Gaulle’s Free French, who viewed the attack as underhanded against vessels in port. It did, however, serve to reassure the world the Britain did not intend to capitulate.

British Indian troops in a position in Kenya (British East Africa)

Subsequent skirmishes at sea between the Royal Navy and the Italian Regia Marina were inconclusive, but the Italians also had plans for a war on land; as they commenced an invasion of British Somaliland and Kenya from their recently conquered possessions in Ethiopia on August 3, expecting easy victories against the weak British colonial forces stationed there. The British were forced to evacuate from Somalia by August 19, suffering a humiliating defeat. Mussolini intended to follow this success with yet more, diverting troops in Africa toward even greater prizes.

German HE111 bombers at a French airbase

Even as the situation in Africa deteriorated, the British were now faced with the direct threat of invasion, with the Wehrmacht only held at bay by the English Channel. The Germans were, at least for the moment, incapable of a major amphibious invasion of Britain, due both to a lack of dedicated assault craft and the vast superiority of the Royal Navy over the Kriegsmarine. The only option available was a massive airlift, with the Luftwaffe also providing sufficient support to keep the Home Fleet off the amphibious forces crossing the Channel. The major obstacle here was the Royal Air Force, and thus the mission priority for the Luftwaffe became the complete destruction of the RAF before the end of the summer.

An RAF spitfire takes off

This would be a difficult task, however, with the determination of the British to hold out, combined with a strong network of defenses. RAF Fighter Command had a strong organizational system allowing excellent coordination of interception flights between the numerous bases around the country, which was mated with a fleet of excellent fighter aircraft, namely the Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine Spitfire. Controversially at the time, Fighter Command leader Air Chief Marshal Sir High Dowding had refused French requests for more British fighters as France fell, but that decision was now paying off by leaving the RAF with a significant force to defend their homeland.

British Chain Home radar station

Probably the single greatest adavntage enjoyed by the British, however, was the existence of the Chain Home radar array. The first of its type in the world, it consisted of several stations dotted along the British coast, providing accurate advanced warning of any incoming aircraft. This would work in tandem with the volunteer Observer Corps on the ground to relay information regarding the size, composition, altitude and heading of incoming enemy flights. These combined to make a formidable obstacle to the Luftwaffe, despite the Germans’ numerical superiority.

RAF pilots examine the wreck of German Stuka

The German onslaught began with attacks on convoys in the Channel by stukas, along with strikes against military installations on the southern English coast starting on July 4. The RAF was not able to allocate significant fighter cover to the convoys in the area, and as a result high losses were sustained by British shipping, as well as with those RAF planes that were able to attempt interception. Eventually, these attacks forced the Royal Navy to cancel all convoys heading through the channel, instead routing them to safer ports further north and moving cargo overland by rail.

German DO17 bombers in flight - German Federal Archives

These attacks would continue throughout the month of July, but a new phase of the Battle of Britain was about to commence. On August 12 the Germans attacked the Chain Home radar installations with BF110 heavy fighters and stukas, incurring heavy casualties but managing to disrupt the British screen. This was followed on the 13th with the first wave of the massive aerial offensive against Britain, designated “Adler Tag": Eagle Day. Nineteen German bomber wings took off from French bases with fighter escort, targeting RAF bases and British aircraft production facilities. Despite this massive force, the RAF was not crippled as intended, and air superiority still eluded the Luftwaffe over Britain. Adler Tag was only the first such attack, however, and the Germans continued to keep pressure on Fighter Command throughout the month.

Contrails cross the English skies

Another massive attack was launched on August 18, with the Luftwaffe again attempting to neutralize the British airfields in the south of England, resulting in high casualties for both sides in what came to be referred to as “The Hardest Day”. Despite this, the RAF remained defiant, and retained another advantage: when their pilots bailed out of their aircraft, they could often be flying again within the day, whereas German pilots were essentially lost as POWs with little prospect of escape. Increasing losses would lead to Reichsmarschal Hermann Goring ordering in increase of fighter escorts for the bombers, drawing escort forces away from other sectors to concentrate on Luftflotte II (2nd Air Fleet) operations from Calais. The result was a decrease in German air-to-air victories, as well as forcing Luftflotte I in Normandy to switch to night raids due to a lack of escorts.

An observer stands on a London rooftop, scanning the horizon for German bombers

The course of the Battle of Britain would be changed drastically following the events of August 23, when a German formation, lost and unaware of their exact position, bombed London. This was in direct violation of a standing order from Hitler that the British capitol not be targeted for terror raids, and infuriated Churchill, who ordered retaliation. The resulting RAF raid on Berlin was realtively light, but served to enrage Hitler. This attitude, combined with a mistaken beleif that the RAF was all but destroyed, led to a decision to switch the priority of the German attacks from the RAF installations to massive raids against British cities, including London. The Germans began the campaign with a large raid on London on September 7; The Blitz had begun.

Smoke rises behind Tower Bridge in London after a German raid

400 bombers were involved on the first raid on London, targeting the dockyards along the Thames in the East End. RAF efforts at interception were mostly unsuccessful. The Germans’ belief in the annihilation of the Royal Air Force was only increased by this, along with the site of ruined airbases they passed while en-route to their targets. As the raids continued, however, the British began to rebuild their air power, taking advantage of the relief caused by the Germans’ switch of targets.

One of the iconic London busses tossed into a building lies among other debris on a bombed street

As a result, the British began to engage the Germans with passed fighter formations, with the newer Spitfires engaging the German BF109s, creating an opening for the older but more durable Hurricanes to target the bombers. The Luftwaffe began to encounter increasingly heavy losses, with an eventual decision to switch to night raids. The increase of RAF interceptors was not the only issue facing the German bombers, as the BF109 only had sufficient range for ten minutes fighting time over London before being forced to turn back due to a lack of fuel, leaving the bombers undefended.

German BF109 fighters of JG51 in France - German Federal Archives

The largest German raid on London yet was launched on September 15, coming in two massive waves, which were met with a commensurate British response. Over the course of the day the British, commanded locally by Air Vice Marshal Keith Park, met the German attacks in well coordinated actions, resulting in the Germans loosing a significant number of aircraft in what became known as Battle of Britain Day. This would generally be considered the climax of the Battle of Britain, and it was at this time that the Germans were forced to conceded that an invasion of Britain could not occur before the winter.

RAF officers in the operations center at RAF Duxford

Despite the cancellation of the invasion plan, the Germans continued their air attacks on Britain, switching the terror bombings to a primarily nighttime operation to save their aircraft. The attacks also targeted cities such as Plymouth, Portsmouth and Coventry, among others, and the Germans began also to attack targets with fighter bombers during the day with hit and run attacks. The Battle of Britain was still far from over, and would continue into the winter.

Italian pilots are briefed in Libya

The war continued elsewhere as well, namely in Africa, where the German invasion of British Somalia and Kenya was soon followed up by an even more ambitious attack, with the Italians using their colony in Libya to invade Egypt, with the goal of seizing the Suez Canal and cutting the British’ main lifeline to their Empire. This began on September 9, with the Italians advancing sixty miles by the 16th of September. At this point the Italians halted, without doing significant damage to the British forces in the area despite their advance. Italian aircraft also began raiding Egypt and as far as British Palestine, and the Royal Navy began to mine Italian ports in Libya as well.

Further developments came further south. On August 27 Free French supporters under General Phillipe Leclerc had seized control of French Cameroon, followed shortly afterward by the French Congo. Despite this success, an attempt by the British to seize French West Africa from Vichy forces failed, leaving the territory in Axis hands for the time being.

Ion Antonescu, the new dictator of Romania, at a celebration of the country joining the Axis Powers

September would also see political upheaval in the east, as the Romanian King Carol II was forced to abdicate the throne in favor of his son, who had already held the throne as a child before the return of his father from exile in 1930. The resulting power change in the country resulted in Marshal Ion Antonescu becoming Prime Minister, with dictatorial powers over the country. He would soon bring Romania into an alliance with Germany and Italy.

Japanese troops enter Vietnam

Developments were also underway in Asia, was the Japanese moved to capitalize on the collapse of France by invading French Indochina, which included Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. Despite the French agreement to allow Japanese troops to garrison the territory, Japanese troops crossed the border into Vietnam near Dong Dang on September 22, followed days later by airstrikes from carriers based in the Gulf of Tonkin when the Vichy troops attempted to resist. By the 26th of September the Japanese had effective control of northern Vietnam, and sent further troops to occupy important positions in the south, although they allowed the Vichy administration to continue in general function afterward, including allowing their forces to remain armed.

This action by Japan would be one of the reasons for an embargo on steel shipments from the United States, which also this month had called up the National Guard in response to the increasing global tensions. The country also was increasing its war aid being sent to Britain, even as the German Kriegsmarine increased their U-boat attacks on Atlantic shipping.

Timeline

• 7-1-1940

  • Petain’s Vichy Government is established in France

• 7-3-1940

  • The Royal Navy attacks and destroys the French Fleet at Mers el Kebir

• 7-4-1940

  • German air attacks on British shipping in the English Channel begin

  • French aircraft attack the British base at Gibraltar with little effect

• 7-9-1940

  • British and Italian warships engage each other at Calambria, ending in a draw

• 7-10-1940

  • The Germans intensify their air attacks on channel shipping and British coastal defenses

  • Philippe Petain takes full dictatorial power over Vichy France

• 7-13-1940

  • Italian forces in Ethiopia invade British Kenya and Somalia

• 7-16-1940

  • Hitler approves Operation Sea Lion, the invasion of Britain

  • The Vichy government strips French Jews of citizenship

• 7-18-1940

  • President Roosevelt in the United States is nominated for a third term

• 7-19-1940

  • British and Italian ships clash again off Cape Spada in the Mediterranean, resulting in the loss of an Italian cruiser

  • The Luftwaffe raids an aircraft engine factory in Glasgow, Scotland

• 7-25-1940

  • British convoy losses reach a point that it is decided to end shipping in the channel

• 7-31-1940

  • At a high level conference there is doubt that the Kriegsmarine can support the invasion until September, and talk of an attack on the USSR is floated

• 8-2-1940

  • Charles de Gaulle is tried for treason in absentia by a Vichy court, and sentenced to death

• 8-8-1940

  • The Luftwaffe redirects its attacks to concentrate on British ports

• 8-12-1940

  • The Luftwaffe attacks British radar installations along the coast

• 8-13-1940

  • Adler Tag: The Germans commence their effort to destroy the Royal Air Force

• 8-15-1940

  • German casualties over Britain are severe, it is remembered by them as Black Thursday

• 8-18-1940

  • Massive German raids on Britain in what is known as The Hardest Day leave both sides with significant casualties

• 8-20-1940

  • Churchill addresses the House of Commons, proclaiming that “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few”

• 8-23-1940

  • The Germans accidentally bomb London, violating an order by Hitler to avoid the British capitol

  • The new German battleship Bismarck is commissioned

• 8-25-1940

  • The RAF bombs Berlin in retaliation for the London raid two days prior. The action enrages Hitler

• 8-26-1940

  • French Chad declares loyalty to the Free French

• 8-27-1940

  • Philippe Leclerc takes control of French Cameroon, declaring loyalty to the Free French

  • US President Roosevelt activates the US National Guard

• 8-28-1940

  • The Luftwaffe launches a major attack on Liverpool

  • The French Congo declares loyalty to the Free French

• 8-30-1940

  • The Vichy French government consents to a Japanese military presence in Indochina (Vietnam)

• 9-3-1940

  • Operation Sea Lion is scheduled for September 21

• 9-4-1940

  • Hitler gives a speech in Berlin, promising retaliation for the British raid on the city

  • Ion Antonescu is named Prime Minister of Romania

• 9-5-1940

  • Ion Antonescu takes dictatorial power over Romania

• 9-6-1940

  • Romanian King Carol II abdicates, being suceeded by Michael I. Antonescu takes full control of the country

• 9-7-1940

  • The Blitz begins as the Luftwaffe begins major attacks on London

• 9-9-1940

  • Italian forces in Libya invade British Egypt

  • Italian aircraft attack British Palestine

• 9-10-1940

  • Buckingham Palace is hit by German bombs, the King and Queen are unhurt

  • Italian air units arrive in France to assist the Germans in the Battle of Britain

• 9-14-1940

  • The RAF launches an air raid on German invasion equipment in the Belgian port of Antwerp

• 9-15-1940

  • A massive German raid on London is intercepted by a rebuilt RAF, resulting in such high losses for the Germans that they move to shift away from daylight raids on the city

• 9-16-1940

  • The Italians stop their offensive into Egypt after a sixty mile advance in order to await resupply

• 9-17-1940

  • Hitler orders an indefinite postponement of Operation Sea Lion

• 9-21-1940

  • A German wolfpack sinks eleven British freighters from a lightly protected convoy in the Western Approaches

• 9-22-1940

  • Japanese forces invade French Indochina

• 9-23-1940

  • British ships attack Vichy forces at Dakar

  • King George V makes a radio address from the Buckingham Palace bomb shelter

• 9-25-1940

  • The Vichy forces defeat the attacking British ships at Dakar

• 9-26-1940

  • The Japanese invasion of Indochina concludes, with the French administration being allowed to continue to exist, primarily in the south

  • The US announces an iron embargo on Japan and many other nations

• 9-27-1940

  • Germany, Italy and Japan formally create the Axis Powers by signing the Tripartite Pact

• 9-28-1940

  • US destroyers, provided under an agreement for leases on British bases, arrive in Britain